THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 


The  person  charging  this  material  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  return  to  the  library  from 
which  it  was  withdrawn  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,    mutilation,    and    underlining    of    books    are    reasons 
for    disciplinary    action    and    may    result    in    dismissal    from 
the  University. 
To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-840O 

UNIVERSITY    OF     ILLINOIS    LIBRARY    AT    URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


19)3 


[JUN  0  3 


FEB  0  4 
MAROi 


ii91 
:!006 


My 


L161— O-1096 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/teachersdifficul23stre 


BULLETIN  NO.  23 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 

TEACHERS'   DIFFICULTIES   IN  READING 
AND  THEIR  CORRECTIVES 

By 

Ruth  Streitz 

Formerly  Associate,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


PRICE  30  CENTS 


rUBMSHHD  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA 

1925 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Introductory   Statement 5 

Chapter  I.   Introduction 7 

Teacher  difficulties  versus  pupil  difficulties 7 

Purpose,  plan,  and  limitations  of  present  investigation 7 

Plan  of  the  report 8 

Chapter   II.    Miscellaneous  Questions   Relating  to  the 

Teaching  of  Reading 9 

1.  Use  of  script  or  print  in  beginning  reading  classes 9 

2.  Memorization  of  material 10 

3.  Parental  aid  in  reading 11 

4.  Criteria  for  selection  of  supplementary  material 11 

Chapter    III.    General    Difficulties    Encountered   in   the 

Teaching  of  Reading 13 

1.  Development  of  interest  in  reading 13 

2.  Enlargment  of  fundamental  experiences 14 

3.  Provision  for  individual  differences 14 

4.  Enabling  pupils  "to  see"  words 15 

5.  Acquisition  of  an  adequate  vocabulary 16 

6.  Pupil's  understanding  of  assignments 17 

7.  Use  of  the  dictionary 18 

Chapter  IV.    Difficulties  Encountered  in  Teaching  Oral 

Reading 19 

8.  Interest  in  phonics 19 

9.  Development  of  a  reading  mechanism 21 

10.  Skill  in  the  use  of  flash  cards 22 

11.  Carelessness  in  pronunciation 22 


12.  Poor  enunciation 23 

13.  Phrasing 24 

14.  Speech  defects 24 

15.  Expression  in  reading 26 

16.  Appreciation  in  reading 26 

17.  Method  of  teaching  poetry 27 

Chapter  V.    Difficulties  Encountered  in  Silent  Reading.  29 

18.  Fluency  in  recognition  of  words  and  phrases 29    | 

19.  Increasing  span  of  recognition 30   , 

20.  Supplementary  material 30 

21.  Difficult  and  inappropriate  selections 31   : 

22.  Silent  reading  in  the  primary  grades 32  ■ 

23.  Comprehension  of  material 32 

24.  Recognition  of  difficult  words 33 

25.  Elimination  of  lip  movement 34  i 

26.  Rate  in  silent  reading 34  i 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT 

This  bulletin  reports  the  results  of  an  attempt  to  collect  diffi- 
culties which  teachers  encounter  in  the  teaching  of  reading  and  to 
formulate  correctives  for  these  difficulties.  As  in  the  case  of  a  similar 
investigation  in  the  field  of  arithmetic,  Miss  Streitz  found  that 
teachers  have  not  analyzed  their  experiences  so  that  they  are  con- 
scious of  their  difficulties.  This  condition  constitutes  the  limitations 
of  an  investigation  of  this  type  and  affords  a  significant  criticism  of 
the  efficiency  of  our  present  teachers.  It  is  hoped  that  the  investiga- 
tion, even  though  it  has  not  proved  highly  successful  with  reference 
to  identifying  difficulties  in  teaching  reading  and  to  providing  cor- 
rectives, may  stimulate  teachers  to  analyze  their  experiences  and 
thereby  lay  the  foundation  for  improving  their  instructional  pro- 
cedures. 

This  report,  as  many  others  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Educational 
Research,  represents  the  cooperation  of  a  large  number  of  teachers 
and  superintendents  in  Illinois.  To  all  who  have  contributed  we 
gratefully  acknowledge  our  indebtedness. 

Walter  S.  Monroe,  Director 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research. 
February  10,  1925 


TEACHERS'  DIFFICULTIES  IN  READING 
AND  THEIR  CORRECTIVES 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Teacher  difficulties  versus  pupil  difficulties.  The  teacher's 
task  is  to  stimulate  and  direct  the  pupil  in  his  learning.  In  assisting 
the  pupil  to  overcome  a  particular  difficulty  which,  as  a  learner,  he 
may  have  encountered,  the  teacher  may  or  may  not  meet  with  diffi- 
culties also.  Her  difficulty  although  related  to  the  pupil's  is  not 
identical  with  it.  In  addition,  the  teacher  because  of  the  general 
conduct  of  her  class  may  have  to  contend  with  obstacles  which  have 
no  counterpart  in  the  experiences  of  the  pupils. 

Purpose  of  the  investigation.  The  first  purpose  of  the  investi- 
gation reported  in  this  bulletin  was  the  compilation  of  a  list  of  the 
specific  difficulties  that  teachers  are  actually  encountering  in  the 
field  of  reading.  The  second  purpose  was  the  formulation  of  one  or 
more  proven  correctives  for  each  difficulty.  Wherever  possible  these 
correctives  have  been  restricted  to  those  methods  and  devices  which, 
the  writer  found,  were  being  used  successfully  by  teachers  but,  as 
the  number  of  such  correctiVes  was  far  from  adequate,  books  on  the 
teaching  of  reading  and  other  sources  were  utilized. 

Plan  of  investigation.  During  the  school  year  of  1921-22,  a 
request  was  addressed  to  the  superintendents  of  city  school  systems 
in  Illinois  asking  them  to  invite  their  teachers  to  report  specific 
difficulties  which  they  were  encountering  in  the  field  of  reading. 
The  responses  to  this  invitation  furnished  a  tentative  list  of  diffi- 
culties. The  second  step  in  the  investigation  was  a  visit  by  the  writer 
to  a  number  of  school  systems  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  teach- 
ing of  reading,  of  interviewing  teachers  in  regard  to  their  specific 
difficulties,  and  of  seeking  correctives  for  the  various  specific  diffi- 
culties listed.  In  most  instances  the  investigator  asked  the  superin- 
tendent to  direct  her  to  his  most  successful  teachers  of  reading,  some 
of  whom  were  willing  to  demonstrate  their  teaching  of  a  particular 
topic  even  though  it  was  not  a  part  of  the  regular  work.  Books  and 
articles  dealing  with  the  methods  of  teaching  reading  were  consulted 
also  in  order  to  become  more  familiar  with  the  general  principles 


k 


[7] 


of  teaching  reading  and  of  securing  additional  devices  for  correcting 
specific  difficulties. 

Limitations  of  the  investigation.  The  one  outstanding  limitation 
of  the  investigation  was  the  inability  of  teachers  to  analyze  and  define 
their  difficulties.  Many  teachers  even  asserted  that  they  experienced 
no  difficulties  in  teaching  reading;  others  were  able  to  mention  only 
difficulties  in  general  terms,  some  of  which  applied  more  to  classroom 
management  than  to  the  teaching  of  reading. 

Relatively  few  correctives  were  secured  from  the  teachers.  It 
was  necessary,  therefore,  for  the  writer  to  formulate  most  of  the  cor- 
rectives given  in  the  following  chapters.  No  attempt  was  made  to 
bring  together  a  complete  list  of  correctives  for  each  difficulty  nor 
have  those  listed  been  tested  experimentally  but  they  are  believed 
to  be  in  agreement  with  generally  accepted  principles. 

Plan  of  the  report.  In  Chapter  II  of  this  bulletin,  certain  ques- 
tions, which  are  connected  with  reading  but  which  cannot  be  regarded 
as  problems  requiring  reflective  thinking  for  solution,  are  discussed. 
Chapter  III  presents  general  difficulties  in  the  field  of  reading  which 
do  not  apply  specifically  to  either  oral  or  silent  reading.  Chapters 
IV  and  V,  respectively,  deal  with  problems  encountered  in  the  teach- 
ing of  oral  and  of  silent  reading.  In  each  of  these  three  chapters,  the 
"difficulty"  first  is  definitely  stated  and  usually  is  explained  briefly, 
the  "correctives,"  are  then  given,  describing  methods  of  dealing  with 
the  particular  difficulty. 


[8] 


CHAPTER  II 

MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS  RELATING  TO 
THE  TEACHING  OF  READING 

Question  1.    Shall  script  or  print^  be  used  in  presenting  words  to  a 
beginning  reading  class? 

This  question  is  asked  frequently  by  teachers  in  the  first  grade. 
The  symbols  presented  at  the  blackboard  and  on  the  flash  cards  may 
be  in  the  form  of  print  or  script  and  the  question  arises  as  to  which 
results  in  the  most  economical  learning.  The  advocates  of  the  use  of 
print  maintain  that  it  makes  the  learning  of  word  symbols  easier 
than  script  and  that,  after  children  have  acquired  some  facility  in 
recognizing  words  expressed  by  the  symbols  employed  in  printing, 
they  can  form  the  new  associations  necessary  for  the  words  presented 
in  script  within  a  period  of  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  drawbacks  to  the  use  of  print  at  the  board  and  on  cards 
constructed  by  the  teacher.  In  the  first  place  the  printing  is  not  iden- 
tical with  that  in  books  and  the  child  therefore  is  required  to  learn 
three  sets  of  symbols — the  printing  of  the  teacher,  the  printing  in 
books,  and  script.  On  the  other  hand  if  script  is  used,  the  child  is 
required  to  learn  only  two  sets  of  symbols. 

It  is  the  writer's  judgment  that  the  teacher  should  keep  in  mind 
the  principles  of  economical  learning  and  should  use  script  in  pre- 
senting all  work  at  the  board  and  also  in  making  flash  cards,  unless 
she  is  provided  with  a  good  printing  set  which  makes  the  print  uni- 
form in  character. 

Although  many  teachers  are  willing  to  grant  the  wisdom  of 
employing  script,  observation  of  first-grade  reading  reveals  that  in 
actual  practice  there  is  a  predominance  in  the  use  of  print.  Differ- 
ences of  opinion  and  of  practice  no  doubt  will  continue  so  long  as 
teachers'  manuals,  in  taking  up  the  presentation  of  new  words  to  a 
beginning  class  in  reading,  state  that  the  words  may  be  presented  in 
either  form. 


'"Print"  in  this  discussion  refers  to  the  printing  done  by  the  teacher. 

[9] 


Question  2.    What  kind  of  material  should  be  memorized  and  how 
much  memorizing  should  be  done? 

This  question  refers  primarily  to  the  teaching  of  poetry  as  there 
is  little  or  no  memorizing  of  prose  in  the  elementary  school.  Teachers 
differ  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  material  which  should  be  memorized. 
Some  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  poems  most  frequently  found  in 
school  readers  should  receive  most  attention,  and  often  fail  to  take 
into  account  the  fact  that  many  such  selections  are  there  by  virtue 
of  tradition  and  are  of  little  interest  to  the  average  child  of  that  grade. 
Foi  example,  Whittier's  "Barefoot  Boy"  is  generally  taught  in  the 
fifth  grade  and  yet  is  not  a  child's  but  an  adult's  poem.  The  title 
probably  is  the  only  part  of  the  selection  which  appeals  to  the  average 
child. 

Other  teachers  think  that  certain  poems  should  be  memorized 
and  recited  orally  because  the  beauty  of  the  rhythm  will  be  enjoyed 
at  the  time,  and  even  though  the  meaning  is  not  understood  the 
children  in  later  life  will  be  better  able  to  appreciate  the  selection 
because  of  their  early  school  experience.  Such  poems  as  "Thanatop- 
sis"  and  "The  Chambered  Nautilus,"  given  in  courses  ot  study  as 
required  memory  work  for  the  eighth  grade  and  sometimes  for  lower 
grades,  undoubtedly  are  selections  taught  for  the  rhythm  and  beauty 
of  the  phraseology  rather  than  for  comprehension. 

Still  other  teachers  would  restrict  the  poems  lor  memorization 
to  those  which  are  within  the  child's  interests  and  experiences.  "My 
Shadow,"  "The  Swing,"  and  "Rain"  by  Stevenson  illustrate  such 
selections.  Several  satisfactory  collections  ot  children's  poems,  which 
comply  with  the  principles  underlying  good  literature  and  at  the 
same  time  fulfil  the  requirements  for  interesting  young  children,  have 
been  prepared  and  may  be  secured  by  teachers  in  the  primary  grades. 
There  is  a  tendency,  however,  on  the  part  of  the  makers  of  courses 
of  study  to  assign  poems  to  the  lowest  grades  for  which  they  are 
thought  to  be  appropriate.  Patriotic  poems  are  often  given  very 
young  children  to  learn  and  other  poems  are  likewise  required  in  the 
primary  grades  which  better  judgment  might  place  in  higher  grades. 

In  addition  to  the  differences  of  opinion  regarding  the  types 
of  poems  to  be  memorized,  a  lack  of  agreement  exists  among  teachers 
as  to  the  amount  of  memorizing  which  the  children  are  asked  to  do. 
Some  schools  require  from  twelve  to  fifteen  poems  memorized  during 
the  school  year,  others  a  much  smaller  number.    In  a  recent  investi- 


[10] 


gation  it  was  found  that  the  average  number  of  poems  memorized 
in  each  grade  was  six.- 

Question  3.    Should  children  be  encouraged  to  seek  aid  from  their 
parents  in  learning  to  read?^ 

The  complaint  frequently  is  made  that  when  children  in  the 
first  grade  take  their  readers  home  they  are  often  retarded  in  their 
progress  because  their  parents  endeavor  to  help  them.  Many  parents 
are  unable  to  understand  how  a  child  can  read  without  knowing  the 
letters  separately  and,  when  asked  for  help,  proceed  along  the  lines 
by  which  they  were  taught.  For  example,  the  child  does  not  know  the 
word  "ground,"  and  the  parents  instead  of  calling  attention  to  its 
meaning  and  to  its  similarity  in  sound  and  appearance  to  other  words 
with  which  the  child  is  familiar,  spell  out  each  letter,  g-r-o-u-n-d. 
The  child  learns  the  word  in  this  way,  and  in  school  the  next  day  is 
required  to  recognize  "ground"  instantly  as  a  word  whole.  A  certain 
amount  of  contusion  results,  for  habits  that  were  formed  must  be 
broken  up  and  new  ones  made.  The  child  has  difficulty  in  adjusting 
himself  to  both  methods  of  teaching  and  the  teacher  is  required  to 
spend  more  time  and  energy  in  reteaching  than  would  have  been 
necessary  had  parental  help  not  been  given.  Again,  parents  may  not 
take  the  trouble  even  to  have  the  child  recognize  separate  letters 
but  will  tell  the  word,  making  no  attempt  to  fix  it  clearly  in  his  mind. 
This  procedure  leaves  him  dependent  upon  others,  robs  him  of  his 
own  initiative  and  responsibility,  retards  his  progress,  and  causes 
him,  when  in  school,  to  guess  at  words  and  wait  for  someone  to  come 
to  his  assistance. 

The  practice  of  reading  the  story  in  the  school  reader  to  the  child 
is  criticized  also  because  it  often  leads  to  memorization  without  com- 
prehension. When  some  children  appear  to  read  well,  investigation 
has  shown  that  they  did  not  comprehend  the  material  at  all  but  had 
so  perfectly  memorized  the  passage  from  hearing  it  read  that  to  the 
casual  observer  they  seemed  to  be  reading. 

Question  4.     What  are  the   criteria  for  selecting  supplementary 

reading  material? 

Without  doubt,  in  selecting  supplementary  material,  interest 
should  receive  first  consideration  and  an  attempt  made  to  determine 

^Bamesberger,  Velda  C.  "Standard  requirements  for  memorizing  literary  ma- 
terial." University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  17,  No.  26,  Bureau  of  Educational  Re- 
search Bulletin  No.  3.    Urbana,  University  of  Illinois,  1920.    93  p. 

'This  question  is  especially  applicable  to  the  first  grade. 

[11] 


whether  or  not  the  material  is  such  as  to  insure  the  proper  cultivation 
of  interest.  Nearly  all  children  like  to  read  but  this  desire  can  easily 
be  crushed  it  the  selection  is  such  that  the  reading  becomes  drudgery 
rather  than  enjoyment.  Many  primary  teachers  favor  folk  tales  and 
nursery  rhymes  since  they  are  immediately  interesting  and  the 
children  do  not  tire  of  the  natural  repetitions  in  connection  with 
their  lessons. 

The  second  requirement  is  that  of  content  value.  Recently, 
there  has  been  a  tendency  in  primers  and  first  readers,  to  use  accounts 
of  the  activities  or  experiences  of  children.  From  such  a  simple 
beginning  an  interest  is  developed  which  continues  throughout  a 
series  of  lessons.  The  supplementary  reading  material  should  pro- 
vide the  pupils  with  usetul  information  as  well  as  give  them  pleasure 
and  enjoyment.  Instances  have  been  reported  where  failure  to  learn 
to  read  and  also  the  formation  of  poor  habits  ot  study  were  traced 
directly  to  the  meaningless  types  ot  material  found  in  the  school 
books. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  the  book  also  should  be  con- 
sidered. Publishers  now  generally  meet  approved  standards  in  the 
matter  of  print;  large-sized  type  being  used  in  books  tor  very  young 
children  and  smaller  type  for  those  who  are  able  to  adjust  their  eyes 
to  a  more  limited  space.  No  material  should  be  selected  for  supple- 
mentary reading  unless  the  print  is  good.  The  general  appearance  of 
the  book  also  has  much  to  do  with  the  creation  of  interest.  If  it  is 
attractively  illustrated,  nicely  arranged,  has  wide  margins,  large 
letters,  and  paragraph  divisions,  the  children  undoubtedly  will  be 
more  interested  because  of  these  features. 


[12] 


CHAPTER  III 

GENERAL  DIFFICULTIES  ENCOUNTERED  IN  THE 
TEACHING  OF  READING ^ 

Difficulty  1.  How  to  develop  an  interest  in  reading. 

Some  teachers  state  that  they  have  great  difficulty  in  interesting 
pupils  in  reading.  This  may  be  due  to  a  number  of  causes.  Perhaps 
the  pupils  are  already  familiar  with  the  selections  to  be  read,  the 
reader  may  be  too  difficult  or  otherwise  not  suitable  for  children  or 
the  method  of  teaching  may  tend  to  cultivate  wrong  habits  and 
attitudes. 

Corrective.  Usually  children  are  interested  in  reading  as  soon 
as  they  are  provided  with  appropriate  selections.  Unfortunately 
many  reading  texts  include  some  selections  too  difficult  for  the  grade 
in  which  they  are  designed  to  be  used.  Others  contain  material  in- 
appropriate for  children.  On  the  other  hand,  some  stories  in  primary 
texts  greatly  underestimate  the  intelligence  of  six  and  seven-year- 
old  children.  If  the  teacher  has  access  to  adequate  supplementary 
readers,  a  great  deal  can  be  accomplished  by  choosing  appropriate 
selections  tor  reading  both  in  and  out  of  class. 

Lack  ot  interest  in  reading  may  be  due  to  the  use  of  faulty  meth- 
ods of  teaching.  Excessive  drill  which  soon  becomes  deadening  by 
its  monotony  and  repetition,  forms  the  basis  of  many  of  the  older 
methods.  The  typical  child  is  not  interested  in  the  mechanics  of 
reading,  he  is  concerned  rather  with  what  he  can  do  with  reading. 
Hence  the  newer  methods  take  into  account  the  child's  experiences 
and  interests  and  secure  drill  through  the  reading  of  selections  which 
the  children  like. 


^The  World  Book  Company  has  recently  published  a  very  unusual  and  Interesting 
Series  of  "Picture  Study  Reading  Lessons"  by  N.  B.  Smith  and  S.  A.  Courtis.  In  using 
this  material,  the  authors  claim  that  the  child's  interest  Is  aroused  through  his  study  of 
the  pictures,  that  he  is  enabled  from  the  beginning  to  use  his  reading  as  a  tool  in  carry- 
ing out  his  purposes,  that  he  Is  largely  self-dependent,  and  that  he  progresses  at  his 
own  rate.  In  Series  I,  each  child  Is  provided  with  a  heavy  envelope  containing  a  large 
pad  of  pictures,  frames,  cut-outs  and  directions,  a  dictionary  in  which  the  meaning  of 
the  words  is  illustrated  by  pictures,  and  a  pad  of  stories  and  covers  for  making  his  own 
book.   A  Teacher's  Manual  accompanies  the  Series. 


[13] 


Difficulty  2.    How  to  enlarge  the  fundamental  experiences  of  child-] 

ren  from  which  meaning  is  derived. 

Many  children  come  to  school  with  a  very  meager  background  of 
experience  upon  which  they  can  draw  in  reading.  Often  their  environ- 
ment is  more  of  a  hindrance  than  a  help  in  developing  certain  reading 
habits.  Such  lack  of  opportunity  for  enrichment  places  a  great 
responsibility  upon  the  teacher  in  bringing  to  these  pupils  sufficient 
material  to  furnish  the  experiences  necessary  for  a  well-rounded 
education. 

Corrective.  Second  hand  or  vicarious  experience  may  be  secured 
through  reading.  In  this  way  the  pupil  observes  the  affairs  of  the 
world,  the  types  of  people,  their  activities,  the  environment  in  which 
they  live  and  is  able  to  see  into  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  earth 
instead  of  being  confined  to  the  narrow  limitations  of  his  immediate 
surroundings.  Reading  enables  him  to  participate  in  the  activities 
of  others,  and  for  a  time  he  experiences  their  lives  even  though  the 
historical  period  or  geographical  position  may  be  remote. 

In  adult  life,  people  read  magazines  and  newspapers  for  the  sheer 
enjoyment  of  reading.  They  are  not  required  to  read  for  facts.  They 
read  because  they  want  to  read.  So  in  providing  reading  material  for 
children  the  teachers  should  keep  in  mind  the  enjoyment  function. 
Throughout  the  elementary  school,  books  which  deal  with  all  types 
of  human  experiences  in  all  parts  of  the  world  should  be  selected. 
Geography,  history,  biography,  travel  and  science,  simply  and  in- 
terestingly written,  contribute  in  enlarging  the  experiences  of  the 
pupils  and  in  developing  the  habit  of  reading  for  enjoyment. 
Difficulty  3.    How  to  provide  for  individual  differences. 

There  are  wide  differences  among  children  of  a  given  age  and 
grade.  These  may  be  due  to  differences  in  native  ability  or  to  the 
types  of  training  which  the  children  have  secured  or  to  their  general 
environment.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  fastest  reader  in  the 
class  reading  silently  four  times  as  fast  as  the  slowest  reader.  The 
slow  pupil  cannot  read  fast  enough  to  keep  up  with  the  others  and 
becomes  easily  fatigued  and  easily  discouraged.  Yet  these  strong 
and  weak  pupils  frequently  are  grouped  in  the  same  class  regardless 
of  ability.  Especially  in  the  lower  and  intermediate  grades,  where  the 
differences  are  most  marked,  does  this  problem  of  adapting  class  in- 
struction to  pupils  of  varying  degrees  of  ability  become  serious. 

Corrective.  With  reference  to  this  situation,  several  teachers 
expressed  the  opinion  that  if  the  requirement  for  entrance  were  based 

[14] 


upon  mental  rather  than  upon  chronological  age,  many  of  the  reading 
difficulties  in  the  first  grade  would  be  eliminated.  Although  such 
a  requirement  would  enable  the  first-grade  teacher  to  have  a  more 
uniform  group  according  to  mental  age,  there  would  continue  to  be 
individual  differences  in  reading  ability  to  cope  with. 

Many  teachers  have  two  divisions  or  sections  in  each  room, 
one  being  macie  up  of  the  stronger  and  the  other  of  the  weaker 
pupils.  In  the  first  gracie  perhaps  two  sections  are  sufficient,  but 
beginning  with  the  second  grade  the  pupils  of  a  room  may  be  divided 
into  two,  three  or  four  groups  according  to  their  capacities  as  de- 
termined by  standardized  tests.  In  this  way  each  group  may  be 
given  material  of  a  difficulty  suited  to  its  ability  and  interest.  If  the 
pupil  is  unusually  backward  in  reading,  his  case  should  receive  in- 
dividual attention. 

Using  the  results  of  standardized  silent  reading  tests  as  the  basis 
for  classification,  pupils  could  be  grouped  in  three  sections  designated 
as  A,  B,  and  C.  These  groupings  should  be  flexible  so  that  whenever 
the  teacher  thought  best  the  pupil  could  be  shifted  easily  to  another 
section.  The  teacher  may  arrange  for  the  B  and  C  sections  to  study 
while  the  A  section  recites,  or  she  may  spend  a  portion  of  the  time  in 
supervised  study  for  all.  One  teacher  of  a  second  grade  said  that  she 
allowed  a  recitation  period  of  ten  minutes  a  day  for  the  stronger 
pupils  and  of  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  for  the  weaker  ones.  Some 
days  she  even  has  two  classes  for  the  weaker  ones  and  only  one  for  the 
stronger.  In  following  a  plan  which  groups  pupils  according  to  ability, 
the  stronger  pupils  should  be  given  more  work  in  connection  with  the 
reading  assignment  than  the  poorer  ones. 

Difficulty  4.   How  to  get  pupils  "to  see"  words. 

Teachers  in  the  primary  grades  report  that,  after  they  have  spent 
more  than  the  allotted  time  in  drilling  upon  certain  words,  some 
children  seem  unable  to  recognize  them  and  a  few  cannot  even  dis- 
tinguish between  the  letters  which  make  up  a  word.  It  might  be 
well  to  consider  these  questions — Do  we  recognize  words  by  seeing 
them  letter  by  letter?  What  are  the  factors  which  make  recognition 
easier  or  more  rapid?  How  may  the  child  be  trained  in  rapid  recog- 
nition? and  so  forth. 

Corrective.  A  child's  perception  in  reading  depends  in  part  upon 
the  methods  by  which  he  learns  to  read.  If  the  alphabet  method  is 
used,  children  undoubtedly  notice  the  letters  rather  than  the  words. 
However,  experiments  in  reading  seem  to  indicate  that  in  beginning 

[IS] 


instruction  in  reading,  it  is  best  to  train  the  child  to  perceive  in  words 
rather  than  in  letters. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  bring  to  the  child's  conscious- 
ness at  the  appropriate  time  the  details  which  make  up  words  such 
as,  letters,  syllables,  prefixes  and  suffixes,  etc.,  as  any  one  of  these 
may  be  a  unit  of  recognition  under  a  particular  circumstance.  This 
work  should  begin  with  the  study  of  reading  and  should  continue  as 
long  as  difficulty  in  the  recognition  of  words  is  encountered. 

The  perception  of  a  word  cioes  not  as  a  rule  take  place  through 
a  detailed  seeing  of  the  letters  or  of  other  syllables.  After  becoming 
familiar  with  a  word  its  recognition  is  obtained  by  means  of  "cues." 
These  cues  are  the  dominant  parts  ot  the  word.  For  example,  the 
child  may  notice  the  consonants  which  extend  above  or  below  the  line, 
in  such  words  as,  /zome,  plume,  ^one;  or  he  may  notice  the  first  halt 
of  the  word  as  in  Jfymg,  and  playing,  which  is  more  important  in 
perception  than  the  latter  halt.  The  smaller  letters  or  vowels  which 
join  other  letters  may  help  in  bringing  the  word  into  consciousness. 
Some  readers  see  the  word  as  a  total  word  length  or  word  form  rather 
than  by  noting  a  few  particular  dominant  letter  shapes.  In  presenting 
new  words  the  teacher  should  call  attention  to  characteristic  differ- 
ences between  letters  and  words.  She  should  also  vary  the  instruction 
so  that  each  member  of  the  class  is  able  to  recognize  the  words  ac- 
cording to  the  system  which  he  has  developed. 

Difficulty  5.  How  to  enable  the  pupil  to  acquire  an  adequate  vocabu- 
lary. 

Children,  especially  those  who  come  from  foreign  homes,  often 
are  deficient  in  a  speaking  as  well  as  a  reading  vocabulary  and  it 
becomes  the  teacher's  task  to  provide  them  with  experiences  that 
will  engender  new  words. 

Corrective.  Since  words  should  be  studied  in  context,  little 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  learning  of  isolated  new  words. 
Vocabulary  develops  largely  through  experience  and  not  through  the 
use  of  the  dictionary  or  the  formal  repetition  of  definitions.  Each  new 
activity  enlarges  our  vocabulary  because  it  carries  with  it  a  list  of 
new  words  whose  meanings  must  be  understood.  For  example,  golf 
and  tennis  have  vocabularies  of  their  own,  and  automobiles  and  radios 
have  added  new  words  with  significant  meanings.  We  learn  to  use 
these  words  as  an  understanding  of  them  is  developed  through  con- 
versation and  reading.   The  understanding  or  meaning  and  the  use  of 


[16] 


I 


words  or  the  language  go  together.  They  cannot  be  separated. 
Through  language  we  are  able  to  understand  the  affairs  of  the  world 
about  us,  to  participate  in  public  opinion,  to  acquire  technical  vo- 
cabularies as  well  as  a  large  general  vocabulary  so  necessary  for  every 
well-rounded  personality. 

Language  work,  discussions,  interpretations,  conversations  are 
all  excellent  means  of  enlarging  the  vocabularies  of  children.  The 
teacher  should  keep  in  mind  that  in  the  development  of  a  vocabulary 
we  do  not  mean  the  mere  acquisition  of  words  spelled  correctly. 
We  refer  to  an  adequate  meaning  vocabulary. 

Difficulty  6.  How  to  get  pupils  to  understand  assignments  in  reading. 

The  assignment  in  reading,  particularly  silent  reading,  should 
involve  one  or  more  specific  purposes  rather  than  merely  the  general 
purpose  of  reading  certain  pages  in  the  text.  At  times  the  pupil  may 
be  reading  in  order  to  secure  information  but  in  general  he  should  have 
as  his  objectives  the  acquisition  of  certain  habits  and  skills  essential 
to  fluent  reading. 

Corrective.  Pupil's  difficulties  in  understanding  assignments 
frequently  are  due  to  the  methods  used  by  the  teacher.  The  assign- 
ment should  not  be  left  until  the  last  minutes  of  the  period  because 
it  is  likely  to  be  made  hurriedly  and  the  pupils  fail  to  get  a  clear  idea 
of  what  they  are  to  work  for.  The  teacher  should  give  as  much  at- 
tention to  assignments  in  reading  as  to  those  in  arithmetic,  geography, 
language  or  history. 

When  new  objectives  are  introduced,  specific  directions  for  the 
preparation  of  the  lesson  should  be  given.  Frequently  it  will  be  de- 
sirable to  have  the  pupils  start  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  during 
the  class  period.  If  the  teacher  wishes  the  pupils  to  read  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  information  she  may  find  it  a  good  plan  to  dictate 
a  few  questions  based  upon  the  selection.  In  this  way  the  pupil  is 
given  something  definite  to  work  for  through  his  reading.  However, 
the  teacher  should  take  care  to  avoid  making  the  pupils  dependent 
upon  questions  for  their  objectives  in  reading. 

Having  pupils  understand  the  assignment  is  partly  a  matter  of 
training  them  in  good  methods  of  study.  A  pupil  is  likely  to  say  that 
he  does  not  understand  the  assignment  if  he  does  not  know  how  to 
study  it.  Therefore  the  teacher,  when  making  the  assignment,  should 
give  attention  to  the  training  in  the  methods  of  study  which  the 
pupils  will  need  in  its  preparation. 


[17] 


Difficulty  7.  How  to  teach  children  to  use  the  dictionary. 

Children  find  the  use  of  the  dictionary  difficult  because  it  is 
treated  as  an  incidental  tool.  Formerly,  readers  for  the  intermediate 
grades  contained  lists  of  words  with  diacritical  markings  which  were 
given  considerable  emphasis.  Our  present  readers  generally  do  not 
contain  such  word  lists.  Even  in  the  teaching  of  spelling,  authorities 
have  urged  that  diacritical  marks  be  abolished.  Consequently, 
children  come  to  the  place  in  their  school  life  where  they  must  con- 
sult the  dictionary  without  having  had  any  training  either  in  its  use 
or  in  the  interpretation  of  diacritical  markings.  Teachers  should 
recognize  this  fact  and  in  teaching  the  use  of  the  dictionary  should 
proceed  as  though  their  pupils  had  had  no  previous  experience  in 
looking  up  the  pronunciation  and  definition  of  unfamiliar  words. 

Corrective.  In  beginning  the  use  of  the  dictionary  the  teacher 
should  give  instruction  first  in  finding  words.  Since  memorization  of 
the  alphabet  is  no  longer  considered  as  a  prerequisite  for  learning  to 
read,  pupils  may  not  know  the  order  of  the  letters.  Hence  they  en- 
counter difficulty  in  finding  words  in  the  dictionary.  The  teacher 
should  prepare  a  few  lists  of  typical  words  and  require  her  pupils  to 
practice  finding  them  in  the  dictionary  until  they  have  acquired  a 
considerable  degree  of  facility  in  such  work. 

Attention  next  should  be  directed  to  the  diacritical  markings  . 
which  indicate  the  pronunciation  of  words.  Training  must  be  given 
in  the  association  of  certain  sounds  with  certain  symbols.  After  the 
pupils  have  been  given  this  instruction  the  teacher  may  place  on  the  t 
blackboard  the  principal  diacritical  marks  with  a  few  illustrations  of 
each  for  use  as  reference  throughout  the  year. 

When  several  definitions  are  given  for  a  word  pupils  often  find 
it  difficult  to  select  the  correct  one.  One  teacher  stated  that  in  such 
a  case  she  required  her  pupils  to  substitute  the  definition  which  they 
think  to  be  right  in  place  of  the  unfamiliar  word,  and  if  the  meaning 
of  the  sentence  is  then  clear,  the  correct  definition  evidently  has  been 
selected. 


[18] 


CHAPTER  IV 

DIFFICULTIES  ENCOUNTERED  IN  TEACHING 
ORAL  READING 

Difficulty  8.    How  to  create  and  maintain  an  interest  in  phonics. 

Although  the  majority  of  teachers  favor  some  teaching  of  phon- 
ics they  are  all  agreed  that  such  teaching  is  difficult  and  that  children 
must  be  stimulated  constantly  by  every  outside  means  that  can  be 
devised  by  the  resourceful  teacher.  Even  then  it  may  be  hard  to 
maintain  interest  from  day  to  day  when  the  material  itself  has  no 
interesting  features. 

Corrective.  The  purpose  of  phonetic  teaching  is  to  enable  pupils 
to  analyze  unfamiliar  words  as  a  means  of  ascertaining  their  pro- 
nunciation. This  analysis  should  be  introduced  in  special  periods 
after  pupils  have  begun  to  note  similarities  and  differences  in  the 
words  which  they  have  learned  in  their  reading  exercises.  If  such 
work  is  begun  with  the  first  reading  lessons  the  pupils  will  probably 
not  be  interested  in  the  phonic  study  of  words. ^ 

In  teaching  phonics  the  following  suggestions  should  be  kept  in 
mind.- 

1.  Have  the  child's  undivided  attention. 

2.  Present  the  symbol,  that  is,  a  picture  of  the  sound  at  the  same 
time  the  sound  is  given. 

3.  Perform  actions,  when  symbol  is  shown,  to  fix  the  sound  in 
mind. 

4.  Play  games  to  stimulate  the  interest  of  the  children. 

5.  Do  individual  work  entirely. 

6.  Insist  upon  the  proper  position  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

7.  Work  for  speed  but  not  at  the  expense  of  accuracy. 

8.  Put  as  much  spirit  into  the  phonetic  exercises  as  in  the  read- 
ing lesson. 


'Gray,  William  S.  "Principles  of  method  in  teaching  reading,  as  derived  from 
scientific  investigation,"  Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  II.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Publishing  Company, 
1919,  p.  32-34. 

^Watkins,  Emma.  How  to  Teach  Silent  Reading  to  Beginners.  Philadelphia: 
J.  B.  Lippincott  and  Company,  1922,  p.  127. 


I 


[19] 


Some  children  are  interested  in  rhyming  words  and  in  finding 
words  similar  in  beginnings.  The  first-grade  teacher  can  use  this 
interest  to  good  advantage  by  encouraging  her  pupils  to  look  for  such 
classes  of  words.  A  list  may  be  placed  on  the  blackboard  and  added 
to  by  volunteer  contributions  of  the  children. 

Several  teachers  expressed  the  wish  for  advice  in  teaching  the 
sounds  and  combinations  of  letters.  A  difference  of  opinion  exists 
in  regard  to  attaching  the  vowel  to  the  consonants  of  short  words. 
Should  you  attach  the  vowel  to  the  final  consonant  as  c-at,  giving 
the  ''at"  family,  or  to  the  initial  consonant  as  ca-t.  This  latter  view 
is  held  by  those  who  object  to  the  "family"  idea.  One  teacher  whom 
the  writer  observed  was  taking  a  middle  ground  and  not  emphasizing 
either  plan.  As  she  sketched  a  picture  of  a  house  on  the  board  she 
talked  to  the  children.  "Now  we  will  have  the  consonants  go  out  for 
a  walk  and  meet  the 'letter  sounds.'  Remember  the  consonants  are 
'brother  sounds.'  Little  Miss* a'  lives  by  herself.  Brother 'h'  comes 
out  and  meets  sister 'a.'  Here  comes  brother 't'  and  they  all  take  a 
walk  together  (hat)."  Then  other  letters  were  used  and  other  words 
developed. 

Another  plan  of  teaching  the  vowel  sounds  is  to  cut  off  the  con- 
sonants from  short  words. ^  A  word  table  like  the  following  placed 
on  the  board  illustrates  how  classes  may  be  led  to  discover  the  short 
sounds  of  vowels.    Erase  the  final 

cat  met  bit  not  cut 

bat  get  fit  got  but 

rat  let  hit  hot  rut 

letter  of  the  first  column  leaves  ca,  ba,  ra,  and  then  erasing  the  initial 
letter  leaves  the  short  sound  a.  The  next  column  when  subjected  to 
the  same  treatment  again  leaves  a  short  sound.  In  this  way  the 
children  are  able  to  discover  the  short  sounds  of  the  vowels  and  are 
told  that  these  vowel  sounds  are  called  "short."  Later  the  children 
can  be  taught  that  sometimes  the  vowels  are  called  "long"  and  they 
should  then  be  given  a  list  of  familiar  words  illustrating  the  "long" 
sound. 

Sounds  may  be  derived  by  analyzing  familiar  words  selected 
from  the  reading  lesson.  Pupils  should  also  be  given  many  oppor- 
tunities to  decipher  new  or  unfamiliar  words  as  sufficient  practice 
given  to  this  phase  of  the  work  will  do  much  in  overcoming  inaccurate 


^Parker,  S.  C.     Types  of  Teaching  and  Learning.    Boston;    Ginn  and  Company, 
1923,  p.  116. 

[20] 


and  halting  reading.   However,  in  order  to  secure  an  effective  mastery 
of  phonetic  elements  a  well  organized  system  should  be  used. 
Difficulty  9.   How  to  develop  a  good  oral  reading  mechanism. 

In  the  enthusiasm  for  silent  reading  the  teacher  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  necessity  for  training  in  fluent  oral  reading.  For  such 
reading  a  good  mechanism  is  required.  The  child  must  be  able  to 
move  his  eyes  properly,  to  pronounce  words  accurately  and  to  give 
appropriate  emphasis  and  inflection  to  words  and  phrases. 

Corrective.  The  pronunciation  of  words  reverts  to  the  matter 
of  phonic  training.  Time  should  be  taken  to  stress  such  portions  of 
the  word  as  seem  to  be  causing  difficulty.  The  attention  of  the  pupil 
should  be  called  to  the  similarity  between  an  unknown  word  and  the 
other  words  of  which  he  knows  the  correct  pronunciation.  He  should 
then  be  required  to  "sound  out"  the  unfamiliar  word  not  once  but 
many  times;  and  in  order  to  establish  the  correct  pronunciation,  he 
should  be  encouraged  to  use  the  troublesome  word  as  often  as  possi- 
ble in  his  speech. 

One  teacher  was  observed  who  placed  a  list  of  difficult  words  on 
the  board  and  told  the  pupils  to  look  at  them  carefully  and  to  be 
sure  all  could  be  pronounced.  If  a  child  was  uncertain  about  any 
word  he  raised  his  hand  and  help  was  given  him.  In  reviewing  a 
story  the  teacher  may  proceed  as  in  a  completion  test,  telling  the 
story  but  waiting  for  the  children  to  supply  certain  words.  The  pupils 
may  pronounce  these  words  individually  or  in  unison. 

The  omission  of  words  in  oral  reading  is  due  often  to  too  much 
haste.  The  pupil  skips  over  words  in  his  endeavor  to  read  rapidly. 
In  such  a  case  he  should  be  instructed  to  read  more  slowly  so  that 
the  class  can  hear  each  word  or  he  may  be  told  that  the  people  in  the 
story  are  talking  and  he  must  therefore  read  just  as  they  would  ac- 
tually talk  if  he  could  meet  them  outsicie  the  book.  If  a  word  is 
omitted  because  the  pupil  does  not  know  its  meaning,  the  teacher 
may  come  to  the  rescue  with  some  familiar  synonyms  and  enable  the 
pupil  to  overcome  his  difficulty. 

If  pupils  fail  to  give  attention  to  commas  and  periods,  the  teacher 
may  suggest  that  they  read  the  sentence  without  any  punctuation  to 
see  if  the  meaning  is  as  clear  as  it  would  be  if  pvmctuation  marks  were 
observed.  This  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  pupils  to  see  the  real 
value  or  the  necessity  of  punctuation.  One  fourth-grade  teacher 
suggested  that  in  using  periods  and  commas  the  children  play  that 


[21] 


the  period  is  a  station,  the  comma  a  place  where  the  train  stops  for 
water,  and  that  no  mark  at  the  end  of  the  line  means  the  train  goes 
right  on. 

DiflBculty  10.   How  to  develop  skill  in  the  use  of  flash  cards. 

The  use  of  flash  cards  while  generally  confined  to  the  primary 
grades  has  proven  a  very  effective  device  for  improving  reading  in  the 
intermediate  grades.  The  teacher's  technique  in  handling  flash 
cards  is  important  since  satisfactory  results  cannot  be  secured  from 
such  exercises  unless  they  are  well  administered. 

Corrective.  Flash  card  exercises  are  primarily  speed  exercises 
and  therefore  the  time  element  is  not  to  be  forgotten.  Since  the  pur- 
pose is  to  get  a  rapid  automatic  reaction  to  words  or  groups  of  words 
the  cards  should  be  exposed  only  for  a  very  short  length  of  time. 
A  general  rule  is  to  expose  word  or  phrase  for  less  time  than  is  re- 
quired to  pronounce  it. 

Holding  the  cards  also  is  important.  Teachers  will  undoubtedly 
have  systems  of  their  own  but  they  should  keep  in  mind  that  a  method  i 
which  insures  better  exposure  or  easier  manipulation  is  the  one  to 
adopt.  In  any  case  the  cards  should  be  exposed  only  for  a  brief 
period  of  time  and  then  replaced  in  the  pack.  They  should  not  be 
given  in  a  regular  order  as  some  pupils  will  rely  upon  the  order  rather 
than  upon  recognizing  the  phrases.  In  holding  the  flash  cards  before 
the  group,  one  teacher  held  the  card  at  the  bottom  edge,  allowing 
her  fingers  to  be  placed  under  the  one  word  on  the  card  which  was 
the  essential  word.  For  instance,  in  flashing  "Run  to  the  door" 
her  hand  would  be  placed  beneath  run^  etc.  Because  of  this  simple 
device,  the  children  notice  the  position  of  the  hand,  which  empha- 
sizes the  word,  and  are  helped  to  remember. 

Difficulty  11.    How  to  correct  carelessness  in  pronunciation. 

What  constitutes  carelessness?  We  may  say  that  a  careless 
reader  is  one  who  omits  certain  words  or  portions  of  words  and  mis- 
pronounces many  of  the  words  with  which  he  is  familiar.  Teachers 
report  that  the  and  a7jd  are  often  omitted,  words  with  similar  letters 
such  as  saw  and  was  are  pronounced  incorrectly,  and  numerous  sub- 
stitutions as  so  for  as,  this  for  //  are  made.  In  speech,  parts  of  the 
words  are  frequently  dropped  as  the  ing  in  going,  coming,  etc.;  final 
d's  are  not  sounded  as  in  played,  and  endings  of/)'  are  slighted.  Pre- 
fixes are  slighted  occasionally  but  not  so  commonly  as  suffixes. 


[22] 


Corrective.  An  oral  vocabulary  test  should  include  a  list  of  the 
words  most  frequently  mispronounced.  If  the  pupil  pronounces  these 
words  accurately  when  isolated  but  fails  upon  them  in  context,  it  is 
evident  that  the  mistakes  are  due  to  carelessness.  Most  pupils  when 
cautioned  to  read  more  carefully  will  try  to  do  better.  The  correct 
pronunciation  of  words  is  secured  by  applying  the  principles  of  habit 
formation.  The  making  of  errors  is  a  fault  which  should  be  prevented 
by  the  teacher,  or  if  once  made  should  be  detected  and  corrected  by 
proper  exercises  and  drills.  The  prevention  and  detection  of  these 
errors  requires  constant  vigilance  but  nagging  which  so  often  accom- 
panies corrections  must  be  avoided.  Positive  practice  should  be 
given  words  with  endings  that  are  frequently  clipped  off.  No  ex- 
ceptions should  be  permitted  in  the  formation  of  habits,  and  incor- 
rect forms  always  should  be  noticed  and  corrected. 

The  omission  of  words  or  letters  may  be  due  to  defective  eye- 
sight. The  portion  of  the  letter  which  is  boldly  printed  is  seen  while 
the  finer  parts  of  the  letter  may  be  so  indistinct  that  the  pupil  fails 
to  recognize  the  word  as  a  whole.  In  such  a  case,  the  corrective  is 
outside  of  the  teacher's  sphere  and  the  parent  of  the  child  or  the 
school  nurse  should  be  informed  of  his  condition. 

Meanings  of  words  should  be  emphasized  as  a  pupil  rarely  mis- 
pronounces a  word  whose  meaning  he  understancis. 

Difficulty  12.   How  to  get  children  to  speak  distinctly. 

Some  children  speak  distinctly  on  the  playground  and  in  con- 
versation but  fail  to  do  so  in  reading.  This  may  be  due  to  shyness  or 
to  insufficient  experience  in  reading  aloud.  Children  often  start  out 
with  a  good  tone  of  voice  but  before  the  passage  is  finished,  their  voices 
have  dropped  so  low  as  to  be  scarcely  audible.  It  may  be  that  the 
pupil  has  forgotten  that  he  is  reading  aloud;  or  he  may  be  absorbed 
in  his  effort  to  keep  the  place,  recognize  the  words,  etc. 

Corrective.  A  motive  for  speaking  correctly  may  be  secured  by 
asking  the  pupil  to  read  material  that  his  audience  has  not  read. 
This  procedure  may  be  employed  in  the  first  grade,  as  soon  as  the 
child  has  gained  some  facility  in  reading.  In  this  way  the  child  who 
reads  comes  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  function  of  oral  read- 
ing, namely,  to  read  something  to  another  person  in  such  a  way  that 
he  will  grasp  the  meaning. 

Some  children  tend  to  speak  unnaturally,  some  even  shouting, 
in  their  attempts  to  read  aloud.    One  teacher  said  that  she  found  if 

[23] 


she  did  not  hold  a  book  before  her  and  if  she  stood  some  distance 
from  the  children  who  were  reading,  a  more  natural  tone  of  voice 
was  induced.  Voices  can  be  modified,  and  especially  is  this  true  with 
pupils  in  the  lower  grades.  Adhering  to  the  principles  of  habit  forma- 
tion and  always  insisting  upon  well  modulated  voices  will  in  time  pro- 
duce the  desired  results.  Dramatization  is  an  excellent  device  to  use, 
as  the  children  generally  know  the  story  so  well  that  in  taking  the 
parts  of  the  different  characters  in  the  book  they  speak  easily  and 
naturally.  A  few  teachers  observed  made  use  of  the  piano  as  a  means 
of  placing  the  voice. 

Difficulty  13.   How  to  get  children  to  phrase.  ■ 

Grouping  words  into  thought  units  is  commonly  known  as 
phrasing.  The  failure  to  pronounce  words  in  groups  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  children  are  handicapped  by  recognizing  only  one  word 
at  a  time.  For  example,  when  some  children  are  confronted  with  the 
phrase"  crossing  the  road"  they  may  read  cross -ing-the -road  instead  of 
swinging  it  or  phrasing  it  as,  crossing  the  road. 

Corrective.  Children  should  be  trained  to  recognize  words 
rapidly  enough  to  permit  phrasing.  It  takes  less  time  to  sweep 
through  a  group  of  words  at  a  glance  than  to  name  each  one  singly. 
Training  on  certain  phrases  found  in  the  lesson  should  be  given  as  a 
means  of  aiding  pupils  to  think  in  large  meaningful  units  and  thus 
to  become  more  rapid  readers.  Perception  cards  of  phrases  may  be 
used  in  this  training.  Sometimes  the  phrases  may  be  named  by  the 
whole  class  and  sometimes  by  individual  children  and  all  drills  should 
be  brisk  and  should  last  but  a  few  minutes.  Care  should  be  exercised 
not  to  have  the  phrases  too  long  at  first.  Although  phrase  flashing  is 
more  frequently  employed  in  the  lower  grades  it  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage  in  the  intermediate  grades  and  in  ungraded  rooms  in  in- 
creasing the  unit  of  recognition. 

As  has  been  stated  in  the  correctives  for  Difficulty  3  and  Diffi- 
culty 4,  providing  an  audience  situation,  insisting  on  correct  practice 
and  permitting  no  exceptions  will  do  much  to  get  children  to  phrase 
which  in  turn  enables  them  to  read  more  fluently. 

Difficulty  14.   How  to  correct  speech  defects. 

The  general  term  "speech  defects"  applies  to  those  children  who 
stutter,  lisp,  possess  monotonous  voices  and  who  are  unable  to  give 
the  accepted  sound  for  certain  symbols.    Foreign-born  children  and 


[24] 


children  from  homes  where  a  foreign  language  is  spoken  frequently 
possesses  certain  types  of  "speech  defects." 

Corrective.  Stuttering  is  perhaps  the  worst  form  of  speech 
defect.  It  is  not  a  habit  nor  a  disease  but  a  symptom  which  may 
result  from  several  conditions.  The  child  who  stutters  should  be 
given  the  opportunity  to  talk  freely,  although  this  is  often  hard  to 
do  with  our  present  school  organization.  However,  in  small  classes 
there  is  more  opportunity  for  individual  work  and  for  individual  pupils 
to  express  themselves. 

Adults  are  frequently  at  fault  in  being  unable  to  control  their 
restlessness  when  a  stutterer  begins  to  talk.  They  often  take  the  words 
out  of  his  mouth,  with  the  result  that  he  is  humiliated  and  his  nervous- 
ness increased.  He  should  be  guided  carefully  in  regard  to  possible 
attacks  of  excitement  and  depression  and  above  all  he  should  be  free 
from  nagging. 

Rhythm  is  lacking  in  the  stutterer's  speech.  In  attempting  to 
correct  this  defect,  breathing  exercises,  swimming,  dancing,  etc., 
should  be  given  to  develop  rhythm.  Singing  rhythmical  tunes  is 
also  suggested.  The  stutterer  should  be  treated  with  consideration 
and  diplomacy  often  requiring  the  utmost  patience. 

The  monotonous  voice  has  the  same  effect  in  speech  as  in  song 
and  is  corrected  only  by  means  of  long  and  continued  exercise  and 
drill.  Children  whose  reading  is  inclined  to  be  monotonous  because  of 
failure  to  vary  pitch,  emphasis  and  inflection  should  be  worked  with 
alone  so  that  the  ear  may  be  trained  to  distinguish  between  the  right 
and  the  wrong  way  until  the  defect  is  corrected. 

Another  group  includes  those  who  lisp  and  who  cannot  sound 
J,  z  and  //?;  those  who  sound  r  for  /;  and  the  foreign-born  who  have 
learned  to  sound  out  letters  in  their  own  tongue  and  seem  unable  to 
make  the  transition  to  English.  This  is  especially  true  of  children 
who  have  learned  French  or  German  as  their  original  language.  In 
order  to  correct  these  defects  the  teacher  should  analyze  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  which  cause  difficulty.  She  should  endeavor  to  teach 
the  child  the  correct  position  of  the  lips  and  tongue.  Drill  on  trouble- 
some vowels  or  consonants  also  should  be  emphasized.  Primary 
teachers  often  have  to  contend  with  indistinct  speech  or  baby  talk. 
This  frequently  is  due  to  the  misplaced  affection  of  parents  and  the 
child  may  never  be  able  to  pronounce  certain  words.  In  addition  to 
the  suggested  methods  for  the  school  treatment  of  speech  defects, 
attention  should  be  directed  to  deformities  of  the  mouth,  throat, 

[25] 


I 


or  teeth  as  any  one  or  a  combination  of  these  may  produce  impedi- 
ments in  speech.  Often  a  slight  operation  or  the  removal  of  irregular 
teeth  is  sufficient  to  correct  the  defect. 

Difficulty  15.   How  to  get  children  to  read  with  more  expression. 

In  recent  years  we  have  come  to  attach  less  importance  to  oral 
reading  but  we  should  require  children  to  read  with  sufficient  ex- 
pression to  convey  the  meaning  of  simple  prose  and  poetry.  Expres- 
sion involves  emphasis,  pitch,  and  inflection  but  inflection  is  perhaps 
the  most  important.  Monotonous  reading  involving  absolute  uni- 
form pauses  is  the  zero  of  expression. 

Corrective.  "Word  calling"  or" word  reading"  should  be  avoided 
from  the  first.  In  the  lower  grades  the  pupils  should  be  taught  to 
look  through  the  whole  of  a  short  sentence  before  attempting  to  read 
it  orally  and  then  read  it  as  a  whole  or  by  groups  of  words.  In  reading 
with  proper  expression  the  pupil  groups  words  naturally  into  thought 
units,  and  "word  reading"  is  eliminated.  Reading  to  the  class  tends 
to  improve  the  expression.  If  the  child  can  be  made  to  feel  that  he 
has  vital  content  to  tell  about  and  that  the  class  is  dependent  upon 
his  reading  in  order  to  have  a  clear  idea  or  picture  of  what  is  being 
read,  the  expression  invariably  improves. 

Difficulty  16.   How  to  secure  appreciation  in  reading. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  authorities  that  the  term  appreciation 
is  too  vague  and  loosely  defined  to  be  used  and  that  in  its  place  we  \ 
should  substitute  the  worci  "enjoyment.""*     However,  many  of  the 
teachers  used  the  term  appreciation  in  asking  the  above  question. 

Corrective.^  Enjoyment  depends  in  part  upon  comprehension. 
In  general,  a  child  cannot  enjoy  a  story  unless  he  is  able  to  compre- 
hend it.  Overemphasis  upon  comprehension,  however,  is  fatal  to 
enjoyment.  This  is  particularly  true  if  the  child  is  asked  to  halt  his 
reading  and  give  attention  to  word  analysis,  or  to  other  transactions 

^Parker,  S.  C.  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools.  Boston:  Ginn  and  Company, 
1920,  p.  242. 

^The  following  suggestions  for  developing  appreciation  are  taken  directly  from 
Stone's  Oral  and  Silent  Reading,  page  85. 

1.  "While  an  adequate  knowledge  is  helpful  toward  appreciation,  over-analysis 
is  fatal  to  emotional  enjoyment.  It  is  not  necessary  to  knov/  the  meaning  of  every  word 
in  order  to  appreciate  a  piece  of  literature.  It  is  better  to  determine  the  essential  points 
and  let  the  rest  pass. 

2.  "The  best  preparation  for  the  teacher  who  feels  that  her  teaching  is  inadequate 
in  those  jihases  of  her  work  wliich  involve  appreciation  is  to  plan  to  do  what  she  can  to 
insure  her  own  growth  in  this  particular.  Head  more  poetry  and  especially  read  it 
with  those  who  derive  great  pleasure  therefrom  if  you  wish  to  teach  poetry  better.  The 
spirit  of  emotional  attitude  must  be  caught  rather  than  taught." 


which  seem  to  him  to  have  no  relation  to  the  understanding  of  the 
story.  It  is  not  necessary  to  know  the  meaning  of  every  word  in  order 
to  enjoy  or  appreciate  a  literary  selection.  When  appreciation  is 
being  emphasized  it  is  better  to  allow  a  child  to  pass  over  some  words 
and  phrases  which  he  does  not  understand  rather  than  to  place  too 
much  emphasis  upon  comprehension. 

The  teacher's  appreciation  of  literature  is  a  potent  factor  in 
determining  the  extent  of  pupil  appreciation.  If  a  teacher  does  not 
enjoy  a  poem  she  is  greatly  handicapped  in  getting  her  pupils  to  do 
so.  For  this  reason  teachers  should  cultivate  their  own  appreciation 
for  poetry  and  prose  through  extensive  reading.  "The  spirit  of  emo- 
tional attitude  must  be  caught  rather  than  taught." 

Difficulty  17.    How  to  teach  poetry. 

Teachers  generally  claim  that  the  teaching  of  poetry  is  more 
difficult  than  of  prose.  Perhaps  a  change  in  the  method  of  teaching 
poetry  may  help  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  Too  often  both  prose  and 
poetry  have  been  taught  by  identical  methods. 

Corrective.  The  pupils'  first  impression  of  a  poem  should  be 
from  hearing  the  selection  read  by  the  teacher,  without  their  texts 
before  them.  Such  a  procedure  should  be  followed  in  the  first  five 
or  six  grades  and  perhaps  beyond  in  some  instances.*'  The  value  of 
such  a  method  is  evident  when  one  considers  that  the  literary  value 
of  a  poem  is  mainly  auditory.  By  means  of  effective  oral  reading 
some  teachers  are  able  to  introduce  pupils  to  the  enjoyment  of  reading 
poetry  for  themselves.  Studying  the  poem  in  preparation  for  the 
recitation  although  frequently  done  is  not  advised. 

The  teaching  of  poetry  is  mainly  to  provide  the  pupils  with  a 
means  of  increasing  their  profitable  enjoyment  of  leisure.  The 
teacher  would  do  well  to  keep  this  point  of  view  in  mind.  She  shoulci 
also  take  stock  of  her  own  interests  in  order  to  transmit  them  to 
others.  The  following  items  are  considered  important  factors  in  the 
teacher's  equipment  for  such  training.'^ 

1.  "A  keen  enjoyment  of  simple  well-defined  rhythms  similar 
to  the  enjoyment  of  rhythmic  dancing  or  marching. 

2.  "Sympathy  with  the  common  human  interest  in  adventure, 
romance,  humor,  rhyme  and  jingle. 


^In  the  upper  grades  the  pupils  may  get  the  idea  of  the  poem  by  rapid  silent  read- 
ing. 

^Parker,  S.  C.  Tvpes  of  Teaching  and  Learning.  Boston:  Ginn  and  Company, 
1923,  p.  490. 

[27] 


3.  "Skill  in  full-toned  rhythmic  phrasing  and  oral  reading  of 
poetic  lines. 

4.  "Intimate  knowledge  of  the  varied  enjoyment  values  to  be 
found  in  a  few  select  poems  adapted  to  her  grade,  plus  specific  skill 
in  reading  these  poems  so  as  to  impel  the  listener  to  experience  these 
values." 


[28] 


CHAPTER  V 

DIFFICULTIES  ENCOUNTERED  IN  SILENT  READING 

Difficulty  18.   How  to  train  pupils  to  be  fluent  in  the  recognition  of 
words  and  phrases. 

Fluent  recognition  of  words  and  phrases  as  used  here  includes 
the  ability  to  associate  them  with  their  proper  meanings.  In  recog- 
nizing words  the  eyes  are  fixated  on  only  a  tew  letters.  A  child  must 
spend  years  in  practice  before  he  can  attain  general  facility  in  word 
and  phrase  recognition  which  characterizes  a  good  reader  but  he 
can  begin  in  primary  grades  the  formation  of  reading  habits  which 
will  be  of  use  to  him  later  on. 
B  Corrective.    One  prerequisite  for  the  fluent  recognition  of  words 

is  the  development  of  proper  eye  movement  habits.  The  teacher 
should  watch  the  eyes  of  the  pupil  as  he  reads  simple  material  and 
notice  how  many  regressive  movements  have  been  made  per  line. 
A  convenient  method  for  doing  this  is  to  place  a  mirror  on  a  stand  in 
front  of  the  child's  eyes  so  that  their  movements  may  be  observed. 
The  eyes  of  a  good  reader  move  across  the  page  with  four  to  seven 
evenly  spaced  fixations  and  there  are  no  regressive  movements' 
When  the  child  has  to  stop  and  spell  out  words  it  is  evident  that 
proper  eye  movement  has  not  been  established. 

Although  drill  in  the  recognition  of  words  is  necessary  it  can  be 
relieved  of  some  of  its  monotonous  features  by  the  introduction  of 
various  games.  One  teacher  placed  a  series  of  words  on  the  board  and 
turning  to  the  group  said  "Who  can  catch  these  words?"  As  the 
children  gave  the  correct  response  the  teacher  quickly  erased  the 
word.  Another  teacher  who  played  this  same  "game"  had  the  words 
printed  on  card  boards  which  were  shaped  like  fish.  As  a  child 
"caught  the  fish"  it  was  given  to  him  and  at  the  end  of  the  period 
each  child  counted  the  number  he  had  caught. 

Insufficient  experience  with  words  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
causes  for  a  lack  of  fluency  in  recognition.  New  words  must  be  taught 
and  the  meaning  of  the  word  should  receive  especial  attention.  In 
all  grades  above  the  primary  a  point  should  be  made  of  teaching  new 
words  together  with  their  meanings,  and  the  children  should  be  en- 
couraged to  make  use  of  the  dictionary.    Practice  is  required  and  a 

[29] 


I 


great  deal  of  simple  reading  material  should  be  available.  The 
amount  of  reading  furnished  by  the  average  school  reader  is  entirely 
inadequate  and  therefore  the  teacher  must  secure  supplementary 
reading  material  from  other  sources  in  order  to  provide  the  necessary 
practice  which  children  need. 

Difficulty  19.  How  to  increase  the  span  of  recognition. 

This  difficulty  is  essentially  included  in  the  preceding  one  and 
refers  to  the  section  of  the  printed  line  recognized  at  each  fixation  of 
the  eyes.  A  very  small  unit  is  frequently  the  cause  for  the  slow  rate 
of  silent  reading  and  for  the  monotonous  and  ineffective  voice  of  oral 
reading. 

Corrective.  To  aid  pupils  in  increasing  their  span  of  recognition, 
phrases  printed  on  cards  and  presented  in  rapid  flash  card  drill  have 
been  found  effective.  At  first  short  phrases  should  be  used  and 
should  be  selected  from  the  lessons  which  the  pupils  are  studying. 
As  soon  as  they  can  recognize  short  phrases,  longer  and  more  difficult 
ones  should  be  used. 

Sentences  which  cause  difficulty  may  be  written  on  the  board 
and  read  silently  by  the  pupils.  Later  they  may  be  read  orally  and 
the  words  grouped  efFectively.  Some  teachers  underline  the  words 
of  a  sentence  which  should  be  grouped  together,  as  attention  by  this 
means  is  centered  on  accurate  phrasing. 

Difficulty  20.    How  to  secure  appropriate  supplementary  material 
in  usable  form. 

The  amount  of  material  in  school  readers  is  not  sufficient  and 
sometimes  not  appropriate  for  supplementary  reading.  In  the  third 
and  fourth  grades  especially  the  vocabulary  in  the  readers  is  often 
too  advanced  and  the  content  too  meager.  The  supplementary 
material  must  be  appropriate,  not  too  easy  nor  too  difficult,  must  be 
interesting  and  avoid  duplication. 

Corrective.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  provide  appropriate 
supplementary  material,  so  that  this  difficulty  should  not  arise. 
Even  if  the  school  fails  to  furnish  material,  the  teacher  should  not  be 
held  responsible  for  supplying  books  and  magazines.  The  Board  of 
Education  should  have  a  fund  available  which  may  be  used  to  pur- 
chase necessary  materials.  If  this  sum  is  not  sufficient  to  buy  whole 
sets  of  books,  single  copies  could  be  purchased  thus  enabling  each 
child  to  have  a  diflPerent  story.  When  such  a  plan  is  undertaken  it 
serves  two  purposes — the  child  reads  for  content  and  at  the  same  time 

[30] 


gains  training  in  expression  when  he  tells  the  story  to  other  members 
of  the  class. 

If  the  teacher  wishes  help  in  selecting  appropriate  material  she 
might  consult  the  city  librarian  who  is  generally  informed  on  the 
types  of  books  which  appeal  to  different  ages.  The  pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  make  use  of  the  city  library  and  to  form  the  habit 
of  withdrawing  books.  They  might  be  asked  also  to  bring  their  own 
books  to  school  and  either  read  or  tell  certain  portions  to  the  class. 
Magazines  covering  a  wide  range  ot  interests  also  should  be  available 
and  opportunity  given  during  the  regular  school  period  tor  pupils 
to  make  their  own  selections. 

Difficulty  21.    How  to  deal  with  selections  in  school  readers  which 
are  too  difficult  or  otherwise  inappropriate  for  a  particular  class. 

Many  difficulties  in  reading  are  directly  traceable  to  the  reading 
text.  It  may  not  be  adapted  to  the  work  of  a  particular  grade  al- 
though in  other  respects  it  may  be  a  desirable  book.  For  example, 
a  number  of  first-grade  teachers  commented  on  the  reader  which  was 
adopted  by  their  school  system.  In  their  opinion  the  book  was  not 
properly  graded  and  the  words  were  too  difficult  tor  children  with 
such  limited  school  experience.  Frequently  a  reading  selection  is 
written  in  language  which  is  unfamiliar  to  the  children,  and  con- 
sequently an  interest  in  reading  is  hard  to  create.  When  reading  in 
the  intermediate  and  upper  grades  requires  minute  analysis  and  con- 
tinued explanation,  it  is  evident  that  the  selections  provided  are  too 
difficult  and  are  therefore  mischosen  for  the  grade.  One  fitth-grade 
teacher  stated  that  she  had  no  time  for  silent  reading  as  the  children 
spent  the  entire  study  period  looking  up  words  for  the  next  day's 
lesson. 

Corrective.  If  a  selection  is  so  difficult  as  greatly  to  retard 
progress  it  should  be  omitted  and  taught  when  the  pupils  have  ad- 
vanced sufficiently  to  comprehend  the  material  with  a  reasonable 
degree  of  success.  However,  such  a  procedure  should  be  used  with 
caution  because  if  large  portions  are  omitted  an  unfavorable  attitude 
toward  reading  material  as  a  whole  will  be  created.  At  times,  the 
less  capable  members  of  the  class  may  be  excused  from  the  regular 
assignment  and  be  given  easier  selections. 

The  teacher  should  make  adequate  preparation  for  the  teaching 
of  each  day's  work.  Too  often  teachers  take  up  a  reading  lesson  when 
they  have  only  read  the  story  through  hastily  and  are  in  no  way  pre- 

[31] 


pared  to  guide  the  pupils  in  dealing  with  the  difficulties  which  they 
encounter. 

Difficulty  22.   How  to  teach  silent  reading  in  the  primary  grades. 

Although  silent  reading  in  the  primary  grades  is  generally  re- 
garded as  a  minor  activity,  some  authorities  believe  that  the  place 
for  beginning  definite  systematic  work  in  silent  reading  is  in  the  first 
grade.  This  does  not  mean  that  silent  reading  should  occupy  a 
prominent  place  in  the  daily  program  during  the  first  year,  but  it 
does  mean  that  some  provision  tor  this  particular  form  of  instruction 
should  be  made  regardless  of  the  method  which  is  employed  by  the 
teacher.  Others  believe  that  silent  reading  can  be  taught  only  after 
a  certain  degree  of  skill  has  been  attained  in  oral  reading. 

Corrective.  Since  the  main  purpose  in  silent  reading  is  to  get 
the  thought,  the  material  must  lend  itself  to  this  end  and  contain  a 
thought  that  is  worth  while.  This  is  even  more  important  in  the 
primary  than  in  the  advanced  grades.  The  easiest  way  to  begin  silent- 
reading  work  is  through  the  use  of  action  sentences  such  as  "Roll  the 
ball,"  "Run  to  me,"  etc.  In  this  type  of  work  the  child  does  not  read 
the  sentence  orally,  but  silently  and  then  does  what  he  thinks  it 
says.  A  number  of  primers  have  lessons  of  this  type  but  unfortunately 
some  teachers  have  not  been  able  to  differentiate  between  the 
handling  of  this  material  and  that  for  oral  reading. 

As  the  child  masters  the  mechanics  of  reading  and  progresses 
with  his  work,  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  measure  his  rate  of  read- 
ing and  his  ability  to  comprehend  what  is  read.  There  should  be 
frequent  exercises  in  silent  reading  but,  instead  of  following  these 
with  an  oral  reading,  questioning  should  take  place.  The  teacher 
should  be  careful  not  to  go  too  much  into  detail  but  should  aim  to 
bring  out  the  main  points  and  to  be  sure  that  the  child  has  grasped 
the  selection  as  a  whole. 

Difficulty  23.    How  to  get  children  to  comprehend  the   material 
which  they  read. 

All  teachers  are  familiar  with  the  experience  ot  having  pupils' 
rate  of  reading  far  in  advance  of  their  comprehension.  Failure  to 
comprehend  may  be  due  to  several  causes  such  as  a  lack  of  a  good 
method  of  silent  reading,  lack  of  practice  in  reading  silently  due 
either  to  insufficient  opportunity  or  to  the  absence  of  a  strong  motive, 
and  lack  of  sufficient  acquaintance  with  the  necessary  vocabulary. 


[32] 


Corrective.  When  pupils  fail  to  comprehend  material  the  teacher 
must  determine  whether  the  difficulty  is  due  to  an  inadequate  vo- 
cabulary or  to  one  of  the  other  causes.  As  a  vocabulary  test,  words 
may  be  selected  from  the  reading  lesson  and  the  pupils  asked  to 
define  them  and  use  them  in  sentences  either  written  or  oral.  Other 
types  of  exercises  can  be  devised  to  determine  whether  failure  to 
comprehend  is  due  to  other  causes.  Some  of  the  standardized  tests 
have  been  used  successfully  for  diagnosing  pupils  with  reference  to 
their  ability  to  read   silently. 

In  order  to  get  children  to  comprehend  the  material  read,  the 
teacher  must  make  use  of  and  create  situations  in  which  the  emphasis 
is  upon  thought-getting  and  not  upon  oral  reading  or  rate  of  reading. 
A  series  of  carefully  worded  questions  placed  before  the  children  on 
the  board  should  help  them  to  grasp  the  real  significance  of  the  pass- 
age. Thought-getting  cannot  be  overemphasized.  Beginning  in  the 
primary  grades  exercises  should  be  started  in  which  meaning  is  the 
only  significant  element  and  the  responses  given  should  be  in  terms 
of  things  done  or  interpretations  made.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  having  cards  with  sentences  or  paragraphs  written  upon  them 
which  give  very  definite  directions  to  be  followed.  One  teacher  com- 
bined her  reading  and  art  period  by  writing  such  directions  on  the 
board  as,  "Color  the  first  row  of  circles  blue;  color  the  second  row 
yellow,"  anci  so  forth. 

It  has  been  found  helpful  to  administer  a  standardized  test  and 
to  compare  the  scores  of  the  class  with  the  standards  for  that  grade. 
It  is  also  desirable  to  have  each  pupil  compare  his  own  score  with  the 
standards. 

Difficulty  24.  How  to  train  pupils  to  recognize  certain  difficult  words 
or  letters. 

Some  children  with  normal  vision  seem  to  have  difficulty  with 
certain  words  or  letters  such  as  distinguishing  between  such  words 
as  was  and  saw,  lert  and  lelt,  and  wmd  and  with,  and 
such  letters  as"b"  and"d"  in  print. 

Corrective.  In  writing  the  letters  one  teacher  suggested  that 
when  we  have"b"  the  children  should  think  of  a  stick  with  a  ball  or 
a  balloon  at  the  lower  right  side,  while  "d"  is  a  stick  with  a  ball  or 
balloon  at  the  lower  /e/i  side;  p  and  q  were  treated  in  a  similar  way. 
When  words  are  discovered  which  repeatedly  cause  difficulty  quick 
perception  drills  should   become  a  part  of  the  routine  until  the  words 


[33] 


are  mastered.  New  words  may  be  added  to  the  list  as  difficulties  are 
encountered  and  the  attention  ot  the  group  called  to  the  dominant 
letter  in  the  word. 

Pupils  often  become  confused  because  of  similarity  in  form. 
Though,  thought,  and  through;  there  and  where;  then  anti  when  were 
mentioned.  These  words  should  be  placed  in  sentences  and  pre- 
sented in  quick  perception  drills  until  the  child  has  become  familiar 
with  the  correct  form.  Difficulty  was  evidenced  in  a  first  grade  when 
a  child  apparently  could  not  distinguish  between  dog  and  doll.  The 
child  noticed  the  first  two  letters  but  was  troubled  with  the  endings. 
Special  drill  on  words  with  similar  endings  will  soon  overcome  this 
difficulty. 

Difficulty  25.    How  to  eliminate  lip  movement  in  silent  reading. 

Lip  movement  and  vocalization  while  a  natural  tendency  for 
beginners  greatly  retards  the  development  of  an  efficient  rate  of  read- 
ing. Young  children  nearly  always  move  their  lips  and  whisper  to 
themselves  in  a  suppressed  tone.  It  this  habit  is  allowed  to  go  un- 
checked, the  pupil  is  greatly  handicapped  in  trying  to  read  silently 
with  a  standard  rate  of  speed  and  comprehension. 

Corrective.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  flash  card  drill  greatly 
decreases  lip  movement.  The  cards  are  exposed  for  such  a  short 
period  of  time  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  pupil  to  sound  out  the 
syllables  or  to  pronounce  the  words.  In  addition  to  the  flash  card 
drill  constant  reminding  is  necessary  to  get  children  in  the  first  grade 
to  read  with  their  eyes  and  not  with  their  lips.  While  the  type  of 
material  determines  whether  oral  or  silent  reading  will  be  indulged 
in,  reading  tor  information  or  to  get  specific  facts  tends  to  induce 
freedom  from  articulation.  This  also  provides  an  increase  in  speed 
which  is  generally  accompanied  with  greater  comprehension. 

Difficulty  26.   How  to  develop  speed  in  silent  reading. 

There  are  several  causes  for  a  slow  rate  of  reading.  One  may  be 
due  to  the  belief  that  some  teachers  have  thought  that  in  order  to 
read  well  a  child  must  read  slowly.  Or  there  may  be  too  much  em- 
phasis upon  oral  reading  which  results  in  the  pupil  saying  the  words 
over  to  himself  when  reading  silently. 

Corrective.  Motivation  undoubtedly  has  much  to  do  with  the 
rate  of  silent  reading.  Interesting  stories  often  serve  as  a  stimulus 
because  the  pupil  becomes  interested  in  the  selection  and  wants  to 
know  the  outcome.     Quality  of  reading  shoulci  not  be  sacrificed  to 

[34] 


rate  but  the  rate  certainly  should  receive  attention.  Easy  material 
should  be  given  and  short  periods  of  concentrated  reading  have  been 
found  effective. 

A  careful  record  ot  each  pupil's  work  should  be  kept  so  that  he 
knows  where  he  stands.  Some  of  the  standards  for  rate  as  well  as  for 
comprehension  should  be  posted  on  the  bulletin  board  so  that  the 
pupil  can  compare  his  record  with  the  norm.  In  addition  to  using 
some  of  the  standard  reading  tests,  the  teacher  may  devise  tests  of 
her  own,  such  as  asking  the  pupils  at  a  given  signal  to  start  reading 
a  certain  page  or  paragraph  in  the  reader.  At  the  end  of  a  short 
period  of  two  or  three  minutes,  the  reading  should  be  stopped  and 
the  pupils  told  to  count  the  number  of  words  read.  Although  not  an 
exact  measurement,  this  is  a  rough  index  of  the  rate  of  reading. 


1 

I 


[35] 


^ 


